Artist unknown
The Virgin Hodegetria (Peribleptos) of Volhynia, first half of the 14th century
Ukraine, Volyn region, Lutsk, Intercession Church
Tempera on gessoed canvas laid on hollowed limewood panel composed of two boards; gilded
Collection of the National Art Museum of Ukraine, И−414
The Virgin Hodegetria (hodegetria, from the Greek, meaning “she who shows the way”) demonstrates the iconographer’s consummate painterly skill and deep theological knowledge. The fact that the icon was executed in a professional workshop attests to a strong painting tradition—rooted in the Byzantine-Kyivan artistic school of the 11th century—that survived the destructive period of Mongol invasions from the second half of the 13th to the mid-14th centuries.
The majestic and austere image of Mary depicts her in a dark maphorion (veil), her head inclined toward the Christ Child and her right hand gestures toward him. Her sorrowful eyes meet the viewer’s gaze. Christ, by contrast, is clad in a light-patterned chiton, wrapped in a brilliant cinnabar-red himation, while the vivid red cross on his halo embodies the promise of salvation. The complexity of the icon’s theological program is further enriched by the four golden asterisks on the Virgin’s maphorion, which foreshadow Christ’s Passion, while the priestly sash worn by the Christ Child symbolizes his role as the High Priest of salvation.
In the Eastern Orthodox tradition, Hesychasm is the practice of achieving inner stillness and deep prayer. This tradition permeated the theological, monastic, and artistic circles of Byzantium at the time and found visual expression in the dramatic contrast between the deep, cool shadows of the ground (sankir) and the warm ochre highlights used in facial modeling. Cinnabar outlines for the eyes, nose, and shadows of the face and neck preserve an ancient technique observed in the 11th-century mosaics of the Cathedral of Saint Sophia in Kyiv.
Artist unknown
The Apostles Peter and Paul, late 15th century
Ukraine, Lviv region, Mostyska district, Malniv village
Tempera on gessoed canvas laid on a hollowed limewood panel
Collection of the National Art Museum of Ukraine, И—2
The depiction of only the Apostles Peter and Paul—the two pillars of the Church—together on a single panel is rare in both iconography and style in Ukrainian painting. The work is distinguished by its austere flatness and linearity, combined with elements of formal stylization.
Despite the restrained palette, the painter achieves extraordinary harmony. In pursuit of this harmony, he relaxes the conventional distinctions between the apostles, who are depicted with almost identical hairstyles and colors. This hue echoes the terracotta tones of the mantle and the lines of the drapery folds, while the unusual blue of the ground is echoed in the blue chitons.
The cross upon the himation of the Apostle Peter symbolizes his leading role in the establishment of the Church and may also refer to his episcopal dignity. Especially intriguing are the two scrolls suspended in mid-air between the apostles, inscribed as “Apostolic Scrolls.” The style of the icon recalls European Romanesque art. The laconic treatment of form lends the icon an austere character.
Artist unknown
The Apostles Peter and Paul, late 15th century
Ukraine, Lviv region, Mostyska district, Malniv village
Tempera on gessoed canvas laid on a hollowed limewood panel
Collection of the National Art Museum of Ukraine, И—2
The depiction of only the Apostles Peter and Paul—the two pillars of the Church—together on a single panel is rare in both iconography and style in Ukrainian painting. The work is distinguished by its austere flatness and linearity, combined with elements of formal stylization.
Despite the restrained palette, the painter achieves extraordinary harmony. In pursuit of this harmony, he relaxes the conventional distinctions between the apostles, who are depicted with almost identical hairstyles and colors. This hue echoes the terracotta tones of the mantle and the lines of the drapery folds, while the unusual blue of the ground is echoed in the blue chitons.
The cross upon the himation of the Apostle Peter symbolizes his leading role in the establishment of the Church and may also refer to his episcopal dignity. Especially intriguing are the two scrolls suspended in mid-air between the apostles, inscribed as “Apostolic Scrolls.” The style of the icon recalls European Romanesque art. The laconic treatment of form lends the icon an austere character.
Artist unknown
The Baptism, mid-16th century
Ukraine, Ivano-Frankivsk region, near Kalush, from an unidentified church.
Tempera on gessoed limewood panel, composed of two boards with two inset battens; gesso relief, silvered
Collection of the National Art Museum of Ukraine, И−4
The icon demonstrates the persistence of Byzantine iconography even after the fall of the Byzantine Empire and the destruction of Byzantine culture by the Ottoman Turks in 1453. Scholars describe this phenomenon as “Byzantium after Byzantium,” as though the light of a vanished star continued to nourish the art of other peoples of the Orthodox world for nearly a century.
At the center of the icon stands Christ in the Jordan River. He is being baptized by John the Forerunner, while three angels stand opposite. From above descends a blue ray with a dove, the symbol of the Holy Spirit. The conventional rendering of the Jordan River as a vertical blue band is characteristic of this artistic tradition. Equally stylized are the ochre-colored mountains with their smoothly faceted planes seemingly illuminated by rays of mystical light. A distinctive feature of the icon is the numerous colored ribbons encircling the rocks. The large, expressive figures of the saints nearly fill the panel's surface and are united in remarkable harmony by clear local colors. The icon is adorned with the pattern on Christ’s perizoma (a cloth worn around the waist), conventional stars along the perimeter of the red border, and silver haloes enriched with relief ornamentation.
Artist unknown
The Presentation in the Temple, first half of the 16th century
Ukraine, Lviv region, Zvertiv village, Zhovkva district, Church of Saint Simeon the God-Receiver.
Tempera on gessoed limewood panel, composed of two boards with a groove for one batten and a recessed central field; gesso relief on the borders, silvered
Collection of the National Art Museum of Ukraine, И−397
The icon depicts the Presentation of Christ in the Temple, showing the encounter of the Elder Symeon and the Prophetess Anna with the Christ Child, whom Mary and Joseph brought to the Temple. The icon follows traditional Byzantine-Kyivan iconography and is distinguished by its refined painterly quality and harmonious color palette. The delicate pastel tones of the stylized architecture do not overwhelm the composition but remain harmonious with the figures in the foreground. The figure of Symeon is enveloped in a radiant white and red glow of Christ’s divine light.
A particularly noteworthy feature of the icon is the carefully rendered masonry imitating diamond rustication, a motif popular in 15th–16th-century Renaissance architecture. The artist transposed impressions of contemporary architecture into the sacred and stylized space of the icon. The engraved ornament along the borders became a characteristic feature of Ukrainian icons of this period. Here, however, the ornament already reflects Renaissance impulses: instead of the Byzantine braided ornament, one finds a band of stylized acanthus leaves, while the corners are marked by clearly defined squares with floral rosettes.
Artist unknown
The Miracle of Saint George and the Dragon (Saint George the Dragonslayer), second half of the 15th century
From the Church of the Exaltation of the True Cross, Zvyzhen village (now Poland)
Tempera on gessoed limewood panel, composed of two boards with two inset battens; gilded
Collection of the National Art Museum of Ukraine, И−324
The icon illustrates the miraculous victory of Saint George—beloved in Ukraine and beyond—over a fearsome dragon that dwelt in a lake and devoured the youth of a nearby city. The monster’s final intended victim was the ruler’s daughter, whom George rescued before slaying the dragon. In gratitude, the townspeople embraced Christianity and built a church dedicated to Saint George.
At the center of the icon is the splendid, mounted figure of Saint George, piercing the dragon’s jaws with a slender spear while his white horse tramples the beast beneath its hooves. The elongated S-shaped silhouette of the saint and the sharp, angular folds of his red cloak depart from the flowing rhythms inherited by Ukrainian art from the Byzantine tradition.
At the center of the Gothic castle, with its numerous towers and slender spires, stands an Orthodox church crowned by a dome and cross. Guards stand in front of the gates, while townspeople peer from the windows. The princess implores rescue while an angel hovers above — a symbol of divine providence guiding the saint’s spear. The entire scene transforms the legendary episode into a vivid and richly detailed narrative. The expressive dynamism of the composition, the elegance of its linear rhythms, and the decorative refinement of its forms reveal the iconographer’s familiarity with the artistic language of the late Gothic period, while preserving the theological and spiritual essence of the Eastern Christian tradition.
Artist unknown
Saint George, 1740s
Ukraine, Chernihiv region, Berezna, Ascension Church.
Oil and tempera on gessoed limewood panel, composed of two boards with two inset battens; gesso relief, gilded.
Collection of the National Art Museum of Ukraine, И−201
Landscape did not emerge as an independent genre in Ukrainian painting during the Baroque period; however, as part of the icon’s spatial composition, it developed actively, enriching sacred painting. The combination of an imagined landscape with a gilded relief background—a symbol of the higher, divine world—became a characteristic feature of Ukrainian icon painting.
The monumental figure of Saint George, clad in sumptuous armor and a long ermine mantle, presents the saint as a refined courtly knight. His finely featured, inspired face and gaze directed into the distance, set against a lyrical, unpopulated landscape rendered in cool tones, create a majestic and elevated image of the holy warrior.
This icon originated from the local (first) tier of the large iconostasis of the remarkable wooden Church of the Ascension, built in 1759–1761 by the master builder Opanas Sheludko in Berezne (Chernihiv region). The church was crowned with five tall domes (height 30 m) with windows that created an extraordinary sense of openness and space, filling the interior with light. During the Soviet period, the Church of the Ascension was destroyed, and the iconostasis perished. On the eve of its destruction, in the summer of 1936, the art historian and museum scholar Pavlo Zholtovskyi (1904-1986) succeeded in rescuing some of the icons from this ensemble, including this work.
Artist unknown
Saint Nicholas, 1642
Ukraine, Kyiv, Saint Sophia Cathedral
Tempera on gessoed limewood panel, composed of two boards with two inset battens; incised ornament in the gesso and gilded
Collection of the National Art Museum of Ukraine, И−78
Icons depicting Saint Nicholas—among the most revered saints in Ukraine--survive in greater numbers than those of almost any other saint in the country; nearly every Ukrainian church contained an icon of St. Nicholas. The veneration of the saint in Kyiv dates to the 11th century, when the St. Nicholas Monastery was founded at the city’s Askold’s Grav, traditionally associated with Askold, the legendary first ruler of Rus’, while in Saint Sophia Cathedral (1037), the chief metropolitan cathedral of Rus’, a chapel dedicated to St. Nicholas occupied the galleries.
An early legend recounts the miraculous rescue of the “Kyivan infant” — a child who drowned in the Dnipro River and was discovered alive the following morning in Saint Sophia Cathedral before the saint’s icon. Yet from the rich liturgical furnishings of Kyiv’s churches, not a single icon survived prior to the early 17th century. This work is therefore of exceptional importance, as it originates from Saint Sophia Cathedral in Kyiv and constitutes its earliest surviving icon.
The painting of this icon bears witness to major transformations that had already begun to reshape Ukrainian art by the late 16th century under the influence of the European Renaissance. Engagement with the visible world altered the icon's conventional planar character, while the 17th century introduced even more far-reaching developments in artistic language and the treatment of saintly figures. The modeling of faces through light and shadow, the volumetric treatment of the body, and the abandonment of schematic linearity in the rendering of drapery folds bring the saints closer to living human presence.
These developments fundamentally transformed the Ukrainian icon and gave rise to a new conception of sacred space, one that would have been impossible without the changing intellectual and spiritual outlook of Ukrainian society, attuned to contemporary European ideas. The icon of Saint Nicholas preserves an epitaph inscription recording the date of its execution — 1642 — together with the name of the deceased, the Kyivan burgher Leontii Tarasovych Polotskyi.
Artist unknown
Saint Anne, 1680–1685
Ukraine, Slobozhanshchyna, Hermitage of Saint John the Forerunner near Lebedyn.
Oil and tempera on gessoed limewood panel, composed of two boards; incised ornament in the gesso and gilded
Collection of the National Art Museum of Ukraine, И−501
Baroque culture flourished in Ukrainian society during the 17th–18th centuries. It was shaped by Orthodox spirituality and local cultural traditions, and the style assumed a distinctive character in Ukrainian art. Icon painting remained the dominant artistic genre, yet it acquired a more secular character: instead of severe, ascetic representations of saints, artists introduced gentle, compassionate expressions, while holy figures appeared dressed in fashionable, luxurious garments, lending a contemporary appearance to ancient, canonically established images.
During this period, a new ideal of the holy woman emerged, characterized by a tender gaze and a faint smile. Here, Saint Anne, the mother of the Virgin Mary, is depicted in attire popular among the Cossack elite: a red kuntush (an outer robe worn by the nobility) with gold ornamentation and luxurious fur trim, a green dress with gold-embroidered cuffs, and a white namitka, a traditional headdress of married Ukrainian women. She holds flowers of two colors — two red roses and a white lily — symbols of purity, divine grace, and love, thereby emphasizing Anna’s connection to Mary.
The image of Saint Anne, paired with an icon of Saint Joachim (now severely damaged and preserved in the museum collection), was originally placed above the Royal Doors on either side of the Dormition icon in the iconostasis of the now-lost Church of Saint John the Forerunner near Mykhailivka, in Slobozhanshchyna. Representations of Mary's parents were especially characteristic of this region, whose artistic heritage was almost destroyed during the 20th century.
Artist unknown
Saints Volodymyr, Boris and Hlib, late 17th century
Ukraine, Volyn region, Ratne town.
Oil and tempera on gessoed limewood panel, composed of two boards with two inset battens; incised ornament in the gesso and gilded
Collection of the National Art Museum of Ukraine, И−8
Shown here are the Kyivan ruler Volodymyr, who baptized Rus’ in 988 (the name of a medieval Ukrainian state), and his two sons, Boris and Hlib. These princes became the first canonized saints of the Kyivan Church as early as the 11th century, when the first icons of the holy brothers were created. Volodymyr himself entered the ranks of the saints considerably later.
This is the earliest known representation of all three saints together in a Ukrainian icon. Set against a carved gilded background, the three saints appear in contemporary attire: costly zhupans and kuntushes trimmed with fur. Only Volodymyr wears ermine, emphasizing his royal authority and elevated status; his crown is also larger and more elaborate. While the iconography of the Kyivan kniaz' (the medieval title for the ruler of the Rus’) Volodymyr was still in the process of formation, the traditional iconography of Boris and Hlib had already been adapted to contemporary taste. Instead of hats, the saints wear crowns; instead of princely attire and korzno cloaks of the pre-Mongol era, they appear in fashionable 17th-century dress. Their hairstyles also depart markedly from earlier tradition: their long hair is now cut short, particularly for Hlib, shown on the right.
Another characteristic feature of icon painting in the Baroque age is the artist’s introduction of individualized facial features in place of traditional saintly types. The vivid and vibrant color palette lends the icon a celebratory mood characteristic of Ukrainian Baroque art.
Artist unknown
The Crucifixion, with the Portrait of Leontii Svichka, late 17th century
Ukraine, Poltava region, Oleksiivka village, Ascension Church
Oil and tempera on gessoed limewood panel, composed of two boards with two inset battens; incised ornament in the gesso and gilded
Collection of the National Art Museum of Ukraine, И−1
At the center of the icon is the scene of the Crucifixion with figures standing beside the Cross: to the right stands the sorrowful Mary, Mother of God, and Saint John the Evangelist, both distinguished by haloes signifying their sanctity. To the left, in a prayerful pose, appears the figure of the Lubny colonel Leontii Svichka. The inclusion of portraits of real individuals within the sacred space of the icon became a widespread practice in Ukrainian painting of the 17th and 18th centuries. Such icons often served an epitaphic function, particularly in representations of the Crucifixion, where the deceased were portrayed.
The icon painter skillfully distinguishes the divine and earthly realms within the composition: the holy figures are set against a gilded background enriched with floral ornamentation, symbolizing the heavenly world, while the Cossack colonel is depicted before a rocky landscape representing the earthly realm. The deceased is usually depicted kneeling humbly before the Crucifixion, yet Leontii Svichka is shown standing upright in ceremonial attire, reflecting the ideals of Sarmatian pride embraced by the Polish-Ukrainian elite of the 17th century (The nobility of the Polish Lithuanian Commonwealth believed that they were descendants of the freedom-loving nomadic Sarmatian tribes, which set them apart from other sections of society. This particular sense of pride influenced their fashion, appearance, behavior, and so on).
In the background rises the Heavenly Jerusalem, while at the foot of the Cross appears the skull of Adam, who, according to biblical tradition, was buried at Golgotha, where Christ redeemed humanity from original sin through His blood.
Artist unknown
The Intercession, late 12th century to first half of the 13th century
Ukraine, Halychyna region, Malniv
Tempera on gessoed hollowed softwood panel
Collection of the National Art Museum of Ukraine, И−14
The earliest known icon depicting the Intercession of the Virgin in the Orthodox tradition originates from Ukrainian Halychyna, in western Ukraine. It is the only surviving icon of pre-Mongol painting from the region.
Heretofore unknown in Byzantine iconography, the subject of the intercession illustrates the legendary miracle that took place in the Blachernae Church in Constantinople, when Saint Andrew the Fool-for-Christ is said to have witnessed an apparition of the Virgin Mary surrounded by saints. The Virgin spreads her veil, the maphorion, over the faithful gathered in the church, a gesture protecting the city from invasion.
The icon differs from the later iconographic variants depicting the intercession. Here, the Virgin is seated on a throne with the Christ Child represented within her bosom and with her hands raised upwards in prayer (the Orans pose). Angels hold the veil above. The inscription “Pokrov,” meaning veil, is placed at the top of the panel.
The icon was created by a folk master whose work is distinguished by pronounced linearity, simplified forms, and expressive physiognomies. It is unlikely that the artist conceived the complex theological program of the feast scene independently. Rather, they may have worked from an existing prototype, probably one found in Kyiv, where the Virgin was especially venerated, and where the Blachernae Monastery was founded in the Klov district – it was possibly here, in the 12th century, that the cult of the Intercession of the Virgin emerged, and the iconography took shape.
Artist unknown
The Intercession, 1730s
Ukraine, Kyiv region, Sulymivka village, Intercession Church
Oil and tempera on gessoed limewood panel, composed of two boards with two inset battens; gilded, with silvering on the frame
Collection of the National Art Museum of Ukraine, И−7
From the second half of the 17th through the 18th centuries, established iconographic variants of the Feast of the Intercession began to evolve to incorporate portraits of political and state figures, members of the clergy, church ktetors (founders), and Cossack officers, lending the icons a contemporary and distinctly national character. Such images are also known as the Cossack Intercession, since the Cossacks regarded the image of Mary, Mother of God, as their protectress and the Feast of the Intercession as their patronal feast; consequently, members of the Cossack elite frequently commissioned such works.
In this Intercession icon from Sulymivka, at the center upon the ambo Romanos the Melodist stands among a solemn gathering within a church furnished with a Ukrainian Baroque iconostasis, alongside the canonical participants of the miracle: are the bishop, the Byzantine emperor and empress, and Andrew the Fool-for-Christ with his disciple Epiphanios, who gestures emotionally toward the apparition of Mary, the Mother of God above. She is surrounded by saints. Below there are figures of contemporary Cossacks and clergy. Their inclusion creates a heightened sense of participation in and spiritual proximity to the miracle for contemporaries viewers.
Behind the emperor appears the portrait of the Pereiaslav colonel Semen Sulyma (d. 1766), to whom the village of Sulymivka belonged. The colonel was also ktetor, a founder, of the Church of the Intercession in Sulymivka and of its iconostasis. The icon of the Intercession served both as the church’s patronal icon and as a distinctive ktetor portrait. Colonel Semen Sulyma is depicted wearing a sumptuous pink satin zhupan, a long, lined coat with golden fastenings and a blue cloak lined with ermine fur, although he was not of royal descent. Several additional portraits of contemporaries are represented among the congregation, though their identities unfortunately remain unknown.
Artist unknown
The Intercession, with the Portrait of Hetman Bohdan Khmelnytsky, second half of the 17th century – early 18th century
Ukraine, Kyiv region, Bohuslav district, Deshky village, Intercession Church
Oil and tempera on gessoed limewood panel, composed of three boards with two inset battens and two later applied battens; carved, silvered and gilded
Collection of the National Art Museum of Ukraine, И−6
One of the most remarkable works in the collection of the National Art Museum of Ukraine is the icon of the Intercession. It is notable for the portrait of the Hetman of Ukraine, Bohdan Khmelnytsky (c. 1595–1657), a military leader who occupies a special place within the pantheon of Ukrainian national heroes, known affectionately as Bat’ko Khmil’ (“Dad Khmil’ ”). He is associated with the struggle of the Ukrainian people for independence from the Polish Lithuanian state, 1649 to 1654, with the Cossacks serving as the principal force in this campaign.
The icon is among the earliest images depicting the Intercession with portraits of Cossack elite. Mary, Mother of God, is pictured at the center, while beneath her maphorion (veil), kneeling supplicants are gathered in prayer. To the right, behind the symbolic figure of a tsar wearing a mantle and crown, Bohdan Khmelnytsky appears wearing a feathered hat and holding a bulava, a ceremonial weapon, the attribute of hetmanal authority; his gaze is directed at the viewer. His image is based on an engraved portrait from 1651 by the Dutch engraver Willem Hondius (c. 1598 – 1652 or 1658) . The engraving achieved wide circulation in the latter half of the 17th century and became the canonical image of Khmelnytsky, reproduced in numerous later portraits. One of its earliest adaptations appears in this Intercession icon. One interpretation identifies the figures depicted on the left as Patriarch Makarios III of Antioch and his son, Paul of Aleppo, who, while traveling through Ukraine in the summer of 1654, were warmly received by Khmelnytsky—an event described in Paul of Aleppo's travel account.
While the underlying paint dates to the mid- to late 17th century, the icon was partially overpainted in the 18th century. The composition of the icon from Deshky differs significantly from the depictions of the Intercession known from the fifteenth century onward. This new iconographic variant, derived from Western European art (La Madonna della Misericordia), achieved broad popularity during the second half of the 17th and the first half of the 18th centuries, enriching earlier variants of the subject, as seen in, for example, the Intercession from Sulymivka 1730s, which has a less ceremonial yet deeply intimate and prayerful character.
Artist unknown
The Dormition, first half of the 18th century
Ukraine, Sumy region, Lebedyn town
Oil and tempera on gessoed limewood panel with two inset battens; gesso relief, gilded
Collection of the National Art Museum of Ukraine, И−18
The Feast of the Dormition of the Mother of God has been one of the most revered in Ukrainian society since medieval times. In the most prestigious and ancient monastery of Rus’ – the Kyiv-Pechersk Lavra – the main cathedral is dedicated to the Dormition of the Mother of God; the miraculous icon of the Dormition was kept there, which contributed to the spread of this theme. The earliest known depictions of the Dormition date back to the 12th century.
In the 17th and 18th centuries, the subject of the Dormition took on a heightened emotional tone, replacing the intimacy and contemplative nature characteristic of the medieval period. In the Baroque period, it became a solemn apotheosis of mystical drama.
A vast crowd gathers around the funeral bier of the Virgin Mary; among them, the apostles and numerous laypeople, priests, and church hierarchy, attended by young acolytes carrying burning candles--all dressed in contemporary attire. At the center, behind the body of the Virgin, stands Christ within a radiant mandorla, holding a swaddled infant symbolizing the soul of Mary. Christ is depicted against a gilded relief background (the gilding now lost), which, like a luminous pillar, symbolically separates the heavenly and earthly realms. On either side of Christ stand small angels with candles; above him appears a cherub, while still higher two more angels hover above. The nearly nude angels are uncharacteristic of Ukrainian icon painting and testify to the influence of the rich imagery of Western art. In the foreground, the Archangel Michael severs the hands of the Jewish priest Jephonias, who attempted to overturn the bier of the Virgin. These two figures are deliberately rendered on a smaller scale, as the painter preserves the icon's sacred spatial conception rather than transforming the image into a secular painting. The entire composition unfolds as a theatrical spectacle characteristic of Baroque aesthetics.
Artist unknown
The Exaltation of the True Cross, late 17th century. Ukraine, Volyn region, Nudyzhe village
Tempera on gessoed panel, composed of two boards (limewood and spruce) with two inset battens; incised ornament in the gesso, gilded and silvered
Collection of the National Art Museum of Ukraine, И−15
Shown here is the Elevation of the True Cross, discovered in Jerusalem in 326 A.D. by Saint Helena, the mother of the Byzantine emperor Constantine. The liturgical feast commemorating this event was established in Byzantium and was already known in Rus’-Ukraine by the 11th century. The icon dates from this same period; Тhe earliest surviving representations date from this same period. Over the centuries, the iconography of the scene evolved gradually, becoming increasingly elaborate.
In the icon from the museum collection, the event unfolds within the interior of a church with Gothic vaulting, columns, and windowed walls resembling stained glass. At the center, upon a high ambo, stands a hierarch solemnly raising the Cross above his head, set against a radiant gilded background that emphasizes his figure. The hierarch’s arms are supported by two deacons holding censers, while below, at his feet, two diminutive attendants kneel with lighted candles. On either side of the ambo stand Emperor Constantine and Saint Helena wearing golden crowns, behind whom a crowd of people fills the church interior. The figures are dressed in contemporary attire, while the icon as a whole conveys a solemn and elevated atmosphere.
Artist unknown
Christ in the Winepress, late 17th century
Ukraine, Kyiv region, Makariv district, Motyzhyn village, Saint George’s Church
Tempera on gessoed limewood panel, composed of three boards with two inset battens; incised, silvered and gilded incised decoration, silvering, toned to imitate gilding
Collection of the National Art Museum of Ukraine, И−16
In the 17th century, Ukrainian artists began to broaden their iconographic repertoire by drawing upon motifs found in engravings by Western European masters. This gradually reshaped the established Byzantine iconography and led to the emergence of entirely new subjects. Such is the icon from Motyzhyn, whose prototype was an early 17th-century engraving of Christ in the Winepress by the Southern Netherlandish engraver Hieronymus Wierix (1553–1619). The icon reflects the Cult of Precious Blood, which is common and widespread in the Western European Church but remains relatively unknown in Orthodoxy. This so-called Mystical Winepress appeared in various forms in France, Flanders, Italy, Poland, and Germany. Christ is shown beneath a cruciform wooden press; blood flows from the Savior’s wounds, often shown being collected in a vessel. The central motif of these representations is the symbolic blood of Christ washing away human sins.
Although this cult had long been familiar within Catholicism, for Ukrainian Uniates, whose religious tradition had long been Orthodox, the theological meaning of depicting the Savior’s abundant blood likely remained unusual and somewhat foreign. This is reflected in the icon from Motyzhyn: while carefully copying the engraving, the icon painter omits important symbolic elements of the original. The wounds of Christ, from which blood streams into a vessel filled with clusters of grapes, are omitted, as is the Crown of Thorns. Also absent is the key element that gives the composition its Eucharistic meaning — the stream of blood mixed with grape juice flowing into a Communion chalice held by angels kneeling reverently nearby.
Artist unknown
The Old Testament Trinity, 1730s–1750s
Ukraine, Volyn, Iziaslav povit, Zakrynychchia village (possibly in the present-day Khmelnytskyi or Zhytomyr oblast).
Spruce panel of two boards with two inserted restoration battens, gesso ground, tempera, incised ornament in the gesso, silvered
Collection of the National Art Museum of Ukraine, И−398
The icon is attributed to a master from the painting center of the city of Ostroh in Volhynia. Works from this workshop, active from the late 17th century onward, are distinguished by luminous, smiling faces with high foreheads and large, gentle eyes. The icons of the Ostroh workshop captivate with their sincere naivité inspired by folk art.
The theologically complex doctrine of the Holy Trinity was traditionally illustrated through the biblical story of the Hospitality of Abraham, depicting the meeting of Abraham and Sarah with the three angels, to whom the childless couple offered hospitality. In return for their hospitality, God granted them a son, Isaac. Curiously, Sarah is absent from the icon. Yet against the silver relief background, the house and the dense foliage of the Oak of Mamre (also called the Oak of Abraham, the ancient tree near Hebron in the West Bank) are rendered with unexpected realism, while the conventional treatment of the ground and hill is enlivened by sparse vegetation. The symbolic still life upon the white tablecloth appears strikingly vivid and fresh.
A distinctive feature of the Ostroh icon is the carved ornament not only of the background but also on the garments, so that the angels are dressed in rich golden robes adorned with floral ornament. The gentle and open gazes of the angels evoke a particular sense of trust in the viewer.
Artist unknown
The Nativity, mid-18th century
Ukraine, Kyiv region, Pereiaslav district, unidentified village
Oil and tempera on gessoed limewood panel, composed of two boards with two inset battens; gilded
Collection of the National Art Museum of Ukraine, И−3
The subject of the icon draws on a representation of the Nativity that was widespread in European art, which is based on the vision of Saint Bridget of Sweden (Sancta Birgitta Suecica). The painter most likely relied upon a European engraving as the iconographic source. Yet the icon also differs in several respects: the event takes place not beside a stable, as was customary, but within a solemn palace interior, while the Christ child, wrapped in white swaddling clothes, lies not upon the ground but in a cradle. Nor does the Christ radiate light; instead, high above in the clouds, the eight-pointed Star of Bethlehem illuminates the scene with its long rays. Mary kneels in prayer before Christ, notably without the customary maphorion on her head—a highly unusual departure from traditional Ukrainian icon painting.
Particularly intriguing are the two shepherds kneeling in the right corner, one of whom possesses pronounced Middle and Far Eastern facial features and holds a musical instrument resembling a bagpipe, popular in the East and known in Ukraine as the koza. Through the arcade one glimpses a church with a three-tiered dome characteristic of Ukrainian Baroque architecture. The blue tones of the walls, the shepherd’s garments, and the sky, together with the delicate pink columns of the arcade, recall the characteristic palette of Rococo, which subtly permeates the space of the icon.
Artist unknown
Saint Paraskeva the Great Martyr, with Scenes from Her Life, mid-18th century Ukraine, Left-Bank Ukraine
Oil and tempera on gessoed pine panel, composed of three boards with two inset battens; gesso relief, gilded
Collection of the National Art Museum of Ukraine, И−203
The hagiographic icon of Saint Paraskeva presents the female saint, reshaped by contemporary transformations in her canonical appearance. A small, elegant crown, a fashionable Western European hairstyle with a single curl falling over the neck, curly hair adorned with pearls, and an exquisite, jeweled earring all contribute to this updated image. Her long, slender neck is encircled by a delicate pearl necklace worn high, like the chokers favored by beauties of the Rococo era. Paraskeva is dressed in green velvet attire adorned with golden patterns and fringe, and what appears to be a golden cuirass or breastplate fastened with a golden belt and a precious buckle that emphasizes the saint’s waist, while her figure is enveloped in a vivid red cloak. An almost weightless, transparent chemise with a tiny red papillon bow emerges from the low neckline of her attire, while her arms, uncovered to the elbows, complete the astonishing transformations that occurred in the sacred image by the mid-18th century. A slight turn of the body and head animates the figure.
The icon painter appears to have been inspired by Rococo portraits of aristocratic women, creating the refined image of a charming woman rather than that of a Great Martyr for the faith. In her hand Paraskeva holds a scroll with words addressed to her tormentor, preserved in the Akathist to the saint. In the border scenes surrounding the central image, the New Testament Trinity is depicted at the top center, while the remaining eleven scenes depict the saint's sufferings and martyrdom. Yet the clarity of composition and the vivid color palette of these scenes lend the icon a sense of exaltation.
Artist unknown
The Great Martyrs Anastasia and Juliana, 1740s
Ukraine, northern Left-Bank Ukraine
Oil and tempera on gessoed limewood panel, composed of two boards with two different battens; incised ornament in the gesso, silvered and gilded
Collection of the Naitonal Art Museum of Ukraine, И−430
The pendant icons of Saints Anastasia and Juliana, and of Saints Barbara and Catherine, unquestionably belong among the masterpieces of Ukrainian art. These icons once formed part of the iconostasis of an unknown church in the Sumy region. Now lost, the iconostasis ensemble, created by masters of the Kyiv artistic school, was of exceptional artistic value. The depiction of Saint Anastasia is unique among Ukrainian representations of the pantheon of saints, whereas Saint Juliana is exceedingly rare. The rarity of these images and the exceptional artistic mastery of their execution suggest that the icon’s patrons were members of the Cossack elite, thereby allowing these saints to be associated with the wives of two hetmans: Anastasiia Skoropadska (1667–1729) and Uliana Apostol (d.1742). It is known that Anastasiia was the patron of the Church of Saint Anastasia in Hlukhiv, the newly established hetman capital in the Sumy region, and it is highly likely that the pendant icons originally belonged to the iconostasis of that church.
The absence of an established tradition for depicting Saints Anastasia and Juliana prompted the painter to improvise. Anastasia is dressed in a whimsical hat adorned with a red plume, large gemstones, and flowing ribbons—an unprecedented feature in the image of a female saint that would not recur in later depictions—while Juliana’s head is loosely draped with a blue satin veil trimmed with a golden border and fastened with a gold button at the center. The images of the Great Martyrs are complemented by garments of sumptuous fabrics decorated with rich floral ornament, trimmed with fur, and embroidered with gold and silver threads. The delicate lace of the underdresses visible at the décolletage and the refined jewelry adorning the women’s necks bring the saints closer to the appearance of 18th-century women.
Artist unknown
The Great Martyrs Barbara and Catherine, 1740s
Ukraine, northern Left-Bank Ukraine
Oil and tempera on gessoed limewood panel, composed of two boards with two different battens; incised ornament in the gesso, silvered and gilded
Collection of the National Art Museum of Ukraine, И−417
The icon painting of Saints Barbara and Catherine is a pendant to the icon of Saints Anastasia and Juliana from the iconostasis of the Church of Saint Anastasia (?) in the Sumy region. Saints Barbara and Catherine came to be widely revered in Ukraine during the 17th and 18th centuries.
Both icons are imbued with the spirit of Rococo, as seen in the gentle curves of the figures, the carefree gazes of the delicately proportioned heads, and the playful rhythm of the ribbons. The women’s faces are painted with virtuosic mastery. Note how the subtle combinations of delicate shades of pale ochre and pink tones, the almost transparent highlights, and the soft colored shadows lend the faces an extraordinary, almost porcelain-like freshness. The painter masterfully combined several richly patterned fabrics on a single panel, balancing the colorful diversity with broad areas of a single hue. For the first time in icon painting, one encounters remarkably open décolletés, while the small red-and-blue headdresses with their whimsically floating ribbons recall fashionable French hats of the Rococo period.
In the serenely beautiful images of the Great Martyrs, one of the principal ideas of the Baroque era—memento mori (the cautionary reminder that life is finite)— is distinctly expressed. Yet the focus here is not the horror of bodily decay, but the passage beyond corruption: emphasis is placed upon the wondrous unearthly dimension wherein the holy women dwell in eternal beauty, affirming the possibility of attaining this world. The luxurious garments with their lavish floral patterns seem to evoke the flowering beauty of eternal Paradise. Instead of severe asceticism and unattainable detachment, these heavenly beauties are so vibrantly alive, beautiful, and alluring that the divine world becomes intimate and accessible to the faithful.
As conceived within the single iconostasis ensemble, the two icon paintings of the martyred saints together constitute a pictorial ode to holy women. We know of no other iconostasis in which several female saints were simultaneously represented in the local (first) tier.
Artist unknown
Saint Paraskeva, 1730
Ukraine, Kyiv region, Vysoke village
Oil and tempera on gessoed limewood panel, composed of two boards with two inset battens; incised ornament in the gesso
Collection of the National Art Museum of Ukraine, И−5
One of Ukraine’s most beloved holy figures was Saint Paraskeva. Churches dedicated to Saint Paraskeva Pyatnytsia, the patroness of trade, stood at the center of marketplaces, as documented since the mid-12th century. Icons of Paraskeva were widespread in Ukrainian churches. From the 15th century, she was also depicted with her head uncovered with or without a crown, while retaining her traditional facial type. Beginning in the 17th century, her image assumed more contemporary features, and her attire became increasingly sumptuous.
In this icon, however, the saint possesses vivid, distinctly individualized, almost portrait-like features, while the gentle gaze of her large brown eyes meets the viewer with an attentive and inquisitive expression. A slight turn of the body and face imbues the figure with vitality, suggesting subtle inner movement. Especially striking is the loosely draped kerchief of costly striped fabric covering the saint’s head, from beneath which a stray lock of curly auburn hair emerges, endowing the image with remarkable charm and femininity heretofore unimaginable.
Luxurious textiles, deep colors, and the lavish Baroque relief ornamentation of the background lend the image of the Great Martyr a solemn emotional intensity, while only the attributes held in her hands recall her suffering.
Artist unknown
Christ Pantocrator, first half of the 18th century
Ukraine, Kyiv region, Vasylkiv district, Mala Buhaivka village, Church of the Nativity of the Mother of God
Oil and tempera on gessoed pine panel, composed of three boards with grooves for two different battens; gesso relief; silvered and toned to imitate gilding
Collection of the National Art Museum of Ukraine, И−256
The icon depicting Christ Pantokrator (the Almighty) forms a pendant to the icon of the Mother of God. The two icons were positioned on either side of the Royal Doors of the iconostasis: Christ to the right and Mary to the left. This ancient tradition of arranging icons in the first, local tier of the iconostasis enabled the believers to turn to these icons in prayer and to feel an inner connection through the proximity of the sacred images.
The images of Christ evolved, acquiring new features during this period. His open and compassionate face, with its large brown eyes, offers hope of forgiveness. A characteristic feature of representations of the Savior at this time is the accentuated depiction of the prominent ears, signifying that no prayer goes unheard. Here, Christ appears not as a stern judge, but rather as a good shepherd and teacher, even though he holds an open Gospel book as a symbol of the Last Judgment.
Sumptuously ornamented textiles, wide sleeves, and colored linings enriched Christ’s garments and became especially popular during the Baroque period in Ukraine. The radiant divine light emanating from the figure is conveyed through fine golden assist strokes along the crests of the himation folds. This technique evokes the mystical nature of divine light.
Unfortunately, both the church and its iconostasis were destroyed by the Soviet authorities, and only these two icons survived.
Artist unknown
The Virgin and Child, first half of the 18th century
Ukraine, Kyiv region, Vasylkiv district, Mala Buhaivka village, Church of the Nativity of the Mother of God
Oil and tempera on gessoed pine panel, composed of three boards with grooves for two different battens; gesso relief; silvered and toned to imitate gilding
Collection of the National Art Museum of Ukraine, И−87
The icons of the Virgin Mary and Christ is from the local tier (also known as the lower tier) of the iconostasis of the Church of the Nativity of the Mother of God. Them represent the continuity of the composition of the first tier of the iconostasis, preserving the compositional principles of the altar barriers of churches of the Rus’-Ukraine period. For centuries, Ukrainian art drew from the Byzantine-Kyivan traditions of the medieval era, most fully embodied in the mosaics and frescoes of the Kyivan churches of the 11th and 12th centuries. Monumentality of form remained one of the defining features of Ukrainian icon painting throughout the centuries. This found expression in the depiction of saints, their enlarged scale lending them particular expressiveness and distinguishing them from icons of other countries.
In the 18th century, a type emerged characterized by the gentle, refined facial features of both the Virgin Mary and the Christ Child, with warm, benevolent expressions that reflected the aesthetic tastes of Ukrainian society of the period. The icon from Buhaivka belongs to the iconographic type of the Virgin of Tenderness; its intimate character is emphasized by the Christ Child touching Mary’s face with his hand, while she tenderly supports his foot.
Changes are also evident in the garments of Mary and Christ. Instead of the Virgin’s traditional monochrome maphorion and Christ’s himation, Ukrainian icon painters depicted sumptuous textiles adorned with golden patterns, colored linings, and borders embellished with precious stones. Combined with the relief backgrounds of the icons, such decorative richness lends the works a festive quality.
Artist unknown
The Entry into Jerusalem, 1729
Ukraine, Kyiv, Dormition Cathedral of the Kyiv-Pechersk Lavra, from the festal tier of the main iconostasis
Oil on gessoed limewood panel, composed of three boards with two inset battens; gilded
Collection of the National Art Museum of Ukraine, И−187
One of the most important shrines of the Ukrainian people is the Kyiv-Pechersk Monastery, in Lavra, whose main church, the Dormition Cathedral (1073-1089), was built and decorated with mosaics and frescoes by master draftsmen from Constantinople, in Byzantium. In 1718, however, a devastating fire broke out in the monastery. The monastic buildings and library suffered, as did the Dormition Cathedral, which housed the ancient mosaics. These were destroyed, along with a Renaissance-style iconostasis—all consumed by fire.
The patrons of the cathedral’s restoration were Hetman Ivan Skoropadskyi (1646–1722) and his wife Anastasiia (1667–1729). Monastic painters of the Lavra were also engaged in creating the monumental murals and the iconostasis. From the 11th century onward, the monastery maintained a renowned painting workshop that remained a leading artistic center for centuries, exerting a powerful influence within Ukraine and beyond. The iconostasis was completed in 1729; archival sources do not record the painters’ names.
In 1919, the monastery was closed by the Bolshevik authorities in Moscow, and some of the icons from the iconostasis were transferred to various museums. In 1941, during the Nazi occupation, the Dormition Cathedral was blown up. Only a small number of icons from the iconostasis ensemble survived. Among them are The Entry into Jerusalem and The Nativity of Christ, which belonged to the second, so-called festal tier, where scenes of the principal Christian feasts were displayed.
The icons demonstrate an exceptionally high professional level and a new artistic vision of sacred space in Ukrainian society. While preserving the traditional composition of The Entry into Jerusalem, the painter alters the scene by depicting the figures in the foreground with their backs turned toward the viewer—a device natural to easel painting, yet highly unusual in an icon. The icon painter drew inspiration from the Antwerp edition of the Bible by Nicolaum Ioannis Piscatorem (c. 1587–1652), published in 1674, a copy of which was kept in the painting workshop of the Kyiv-Pechersk Monastery. The artist, however, did not merely copy the black-and-white engraving, but creatively reinterpreted the subject: he developed a color scheme, transformed the composition from horizontal to vertical, introduced a different landscape setting with realistic city walls and architecture, and transformed the figures and costumes of the characters. Finally, the dimensions of the icon far exceed the size
of the engraved sheet, which required exceptional artistic mastery. Yet despite all the artistic innovations and the illusionistic reality of the image, the work remains within the bounds of the period's sacred art, since flashes of not earthly but mystical, divine light emanating from Christ touch the surrounding figures with golden highlights.
Artist unknown
The Nativity of Christ, 1729
Ukraine, Kyiv, Dormition Cathedral of the Kyiv-Pechersk Lavra, from the festal tier of the main iconostasis
Oil on gessoed limewood panel, composed of three boards with two inset battens; gilded
Collection of the National Art Museum of Ukraine, И−186
This work offers another example of transformed iconography, and a mystical vision of light is embodied in the theme of The Nativity of Christ. Everything here is unusual for the canonical representation of the subject. The established compositional scheme has been substantially transformed to be more dynamic. A rapid movement, previously unimaginable in an icon, unfolds in a spiral from the Virgin and the Christ Child at the center, toward whom the shepherds bend, captivated by his radiance. It draws all the figures into this luminous circle, and through the poses of their bodies and the direction of their gazes, the movement is carried upward toward the white light of the opened heavens. The event is rendered as a vivid genre scene filled with awe, expressed through open mouths, attentive gazes, and heads lifted upward.
The Virgin and the shepherds are depicted in lively, complex poses and daring perspectives, attesting to the painter’s mastery. Particularly striking is the absence of the maphorion on Mary’s head. Instead, a light white cloth, gracefully arranged, with one end softly falling over her shoulders, replaces it. Her wavy chestnut hair and exposed ear are highly unusual features for the image of the Virgin in Orthodox art of this period.
The grotesque faces of the two shepherds gazing at the child, their vivid emotions, and the prominent swelling on one of their faces would previously have been inconceivable within the sacred space of an icon. Another innovation is the landscape, which entirely replaces the mystical golden background. Instead of the canonical depiction of the cave, or the later stable setting, the scene is set against antique ruins. Night was not depicted in icon painting and was usually indicated by the presence of the Star of Bethlehem. Here, however, the dark nocturnal sky and the deep grey shadow of the ruins are contrasted with the brilliant white light of the higher “heavenly” world with angels and the mystical golden radiance emanating from Christ. This striking contrast of light vividly demonstrates one of the key features of Baroque art that was distinctively reflected in Ukrainian painting.
Artist unknown
The Pelican, 18th century
Ukraine, Naddniprianshchyna region
Oil on canvas
Collection of the National Art Museum of Ukraine, И−50
The Baroque era was particularly rich in allegorical and metaphorical imagery with profound hidden meaning. From the 17th century onward, new symbolic imagery also enriched the inherently symbolic Ukrainian icon-painting tradition, imbuing it with heightened mysticism.
A new image in Ukrainian art of the 17th and 18th centuries was the depiction of a pelican feeding its young with its own blood by tearing open its breast. This ancient symbol is associated with the theme of the Eucharist and Christ’s redemptive sacrifice; thus, the Golgotha Cross, the chalice, the spear, and the reed with the vinegar-soaked sponge appear here, together with the flaming heart — an image uncharacteristic of Orthodox iconography that served as vivid evidence of Western symbolism in Ukrainian Baroque art. Such a composition proved popular among Ukrainians and continued to appear in Ukrainian art until the end of the 19th century.
Artist unknown
The Last Judgment (fragment), 19th century
Ukraine, Kyiv region, Shpytky village
Tempera on canvas
Collection of the National Art Museum of Ukraine, И−111
This work likely originated in the wooden Church of the Intercession (built 1735) in the village of Shpytky, which was destroyed by the Bolsheviks in 1929. The composition of the Last Judgment was common in the fresco decoration of Ukrainian churches since the 11th century, and monumental icons with this subject often adorned the interiors of wooden churches beginning in the 15th century. This icon represents a fragment of the Last Judgment depicting the gaping jaws of the infernal beast, which forms the most dramatic and emotionally charged part of the composition.
The painter seems to have felt especially free from canonical constraints when depicting the world of hell. Ukrainian icon painters frequently gave free rein to their imaginations, sometimes portraying devils and sinners with humor. The light, sketch-like manner of the folk painter and the assured brushwork with which the faces and figures are rendered in an almost watercolor-like manner within the flames of hell animate the infernal scene. The large dark figure of Satan holds two sinners identified by inscriptions as Judas and Arius (the heretic). Other suffering figures are likewise identified by inscriptions, among them a child-murderer, a drunkard, a sorceress, and an unmerciful rich man — a world of sinners familiar to popular imagination.